What is "Turk" and more importantly - who?

[schoolmaster1954]

Kirkuk (Karkuk) - Iraq Azerb.com

Kirkuk is the largest Azeri city in Iraq. The Turkic population speaks the Southern dialect of the Azeri language, and besides Kirkuk this Turkic population is to be found in the Erbil, Mosul/Ninawa and Deyalah provinces. In tows and villages southeast from Kirkuk, large numbers of Azeris live as far as Al Miqdadiyah, Khanqin, and Mandali. Azeri speakers in Iraq are usually mentioned as Turkman, Turkmen or Turkoman, they use the Arabic script and many have Arabic or Kurdish as a second language.
The first Turkman were brought to Iraq by the Ommiad ruler Ubeydullah bin Ziyad in 54 Hegira. The invasion of Iraq by the Seljuk ruler Tugrul Bey in 1055 marked the beginning of Turkish control that lasted till 1918. The 11th and 12th centuries saw the strongest flux of Turkman settlers to Mesopotamia. Wars and the resulting treaties in the area eventually separated the Azeris in Iraq and Azerbaijan. Their languages, sharing the same root - the Oghuz group of Turkic languages - however, stayed basically the same. Furthermore, several important Azeri revered intellectuals - classical poets and scientists - are buried in Iraq. Several towns and villages found around Kirkuk bear the sames names as towns in Azerbaijan, such as Aghdash, Aghdam, Bilava, Aghsu, Guruchay, Boyat, Garabagh, Garagoyunlu, Amirli, Yayji, Yandija, Mardinli, Uchtapa, Khasa , Khasadaghli Chardakhli.

Calling the Azeri speakers "Turkman" dates from the Seljuk period. Currently the Turkman are represented by the 'Turkman Front', established in 1995 joining several Turkman political and social organizations. The Turkman community's two main parties are divided in their support. One works in co-operation with the Kurdish authorities, the other is backed by Turkey and opposes a Kurdish state in northern Iraq - especially one that would adopt Kirkuk as its capital.

Turkey has tried to exert a strong influence on the Turkman, and often written Turkish is used by the Turkman, as opposed to the traditional Southern-Azeri dialect which predominates in the spoken form. In spite of this, from the Arab point of view, the language of the Iraqi Turkman is regularly mentioned simply as Turkish. The number of Turkman is estimated a 2.0-2.5 million - the third largest ethnic group in Iraq after the Arabs and Kurds. Historically, the Turkman formed a cultural buffer zone between the Arabs in the South and the Kurds in the north.

Under the Iraqi constitution of 1925 both Turkman and Kurds had the right to use their own languages in schools, government offices and press. By 1972 the Iraqi government prohibited the both the study of the Turkman language and the Turkman media and in 1973 any reference to the Turkman was omitted from the provisional constitution. During the 1980's the regime of the Baath party prohibited even the public use of the Turkman language and the constitution of 1990 only states the the "people of Iraq consists of Arabs and Kurds".
In 2003 the collapse of Saddam Hussein's Baathist government brought new possibilities to the Turkman community that will have to be materialized in a difficult context, balancing the interests of Turkey and of the global super-power.

Kirkuk is located in northern Iraq, about 250 km north of the capital Baghdad near the foot of the Zagors Montains. Railway lines provide good connections with Baghdad and Arbil. Kirkuk has a population of over 600.000 and is the capital of the Al-Tamin governorate (muhafazah). Until 1974 the city was the capital of the Kirkuk governorate, which was reduced to a quarter of its original size by the Baghdad government, as a way of controlling the influence of the Azeri speaking population. The Iraqi government has also been very active in settling Arabs in the area as a way of inverting the ethnic balance. Turkman leaders say thousands of their community were forced into destitution in northern Iraq, while up to 20,000 made their way illegally to Europe throughout the 1990s. Currently Kirkuk still has a Turkman majority but the Kurdish and Arab communities are also important.

In post-Saddam Iraq, Kirkuk reveals some symptoms of becoming the centre of a struggle between the Turkmen and the Kurds, both of whom aspire to domination in the area.


The first commercial oil field in Iraq was developed in Kirkuk in 1927. Today Kirkuk is at the centre of one of the richest oil producing areas in the middle east, and pipelines connect it to the Mediterranean ports of Tripoli in Lebanon and Yumurtalik in Turkey. However the oil industry was affected first by the war with Iran and later by the American aggression and blockade. The area has also an textile industries and a strong agricultural sector, producing wheat, barley, fruits and sheep.


The city is built by the Hasa river on an area with archaeologic remains over 5000 years old, the city reached great prominence in the 10th and 11th centuries, under Assyrian rule when it was known as Arrapha. The oldest part of the town is clustered around a citadel built on an ancient tell, or mound. Saddam Hussein's government had some unpleasant interventions in Kirkuk's architecture, including the demolition of the Muhammediye Mosque, but the city is well worth visiting for the many ancient buildings and specially for the castle and citadel, and the 6th century Nabi Danial mosque located in the old quarter. Don't miss the ethernal fire at Babagurgur.

Outside Kirkuk

Qalat Jarmo:
Located east of Kirkuk, Qalat Jarmo is an important prehistoric archeological site. The site became knwon for revealing traces of one of the world's first village farming communities. The approximately dozen layers of architectural building and renovation yeild evidence of domesticated wheats and barley and of domesticated dogs and goats, suggesting the achievement of a settled agricultural way of life. Other artifacts found at Qalat Jarmo, such as flint sickle blades, milling stones, and - in the uppermost layers only - pottery, hint at the technological innovations made in response to the new way of food production. The original occupation of the site is estimated to have occurred at about 7000 BC.

Nuzu:
Modern Yorghan Tepe, Nuzu is an ancient Mesopotamian city, located southwest of Kirkuk. Excavations revealed revealed material extending from the prehistoric period to Roman, Parthian, and Sasanian periods. In Akkadian times (2334 BC to 2154 BC) the site was called Gasur; but early in the 2nd millennium BC the Hurrians, of northern Mesopotamia, occupied the city, changed its name to Nuzu, and during the 16th and 15th centuries BC built there a prosperous community and and important administrative centre.

Excavations in Nuzu uncovered excellent material for a study of Hurrian ceramics and glyptic art. An especially outstanding type of pottery, called Nuzu ware (or Mitranni ware) because of its original discovery there, was characterized by one primary shape - a tall, slender, small-footed goblet - and an intricate black and white painted decoration. In addition to these extraordinary ceramic artefacts, more than 4,000 cuneiform tablets were discovered at the site. Although written mostly in Akkadian, the majority of the personal names are Hurrian, and the Akkadian used often shows strong Hurrian influence. The Nuzu material also made possible an insight into specific Hurrian family law and societal institutions and clarified many difficult passages in the contemporary patriarchal narratives of the Book of Genesis.

sources: SIL, AD2000, UNPO, Encyclopaedia Britannica, BBC, Azerbaijan international

see also: Iraqi visas, places, maps, images of Iraq, Kurds, summary, places, photos

A to Z of Azerbaijan / A dan Z ye Azerbaycan http://www.azerb.com

[schoolmaster1954]

The Turkmen of Iraq



Note: several alternative spellings are recognised by English dictionaries ...

Turkmen (plural Turkmen, Turkmens)
Turkoman (plural Turkomans)
Turcoman (plural Turcomans)


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Introduction

The Turkomans of Iraq originally came from central Asia, in a migration that took place over several hundred years, beginning in the 7th century AD. Today, slightly more than two million Turkomans are believed to live in Iraq (mainly in the area shaded blue on the map below). They are Turkish speaking and almost all are Muslims, though there are also about 30,000 Christians.



Source: Turkmen People Party


Their geographical distribution in Iraq is as follows:

Province of Mosul: Telafer, Kadziyeh, Reshidiyeh, Eski Musul, Eski kelek, Muhallebyeh and Shebek. Estimated Turkoman population is 450,000.

Province of Erbil: Erbil, Eski Kelek, Altinkopru, Karakus. Estimated Turkoman population is 215,000.

Province of Kirkuk: Kerkuk, Tazehurmatu, Dibis, Leylan, Terkelan, Kadir Kerem and Da'kuk (Tavuk). Estimated Turkoman population is 700,000.

Province of Salahaddin: Tuzhurmato, Kifri, Bastamli, Suleyman Beg, Karatepe, Amirli, Yenice, Bablan and Karahasan. Estimated Turkoman population is 300,000.

Province of Diyala: Hanekin, Mendeli, Kizlarbat (Saadiyeh), Shahraban (Meqdadiah), Jelawla (Karahan), Kazaniah and Bedre. Estimated Turkoman population is 220,000.

City of Baghdad: Turkoman population is 300,000. [Source: Tukmen People Party]

More information: Wikipedia


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Political background

The Turkomans complain that the Iraqi government does not recognise them as a ethnic minority or allow their language to be used in public. The use of Turkish in schools, government offices and the media was previously allowed under the 1925 constitution, but restrictions began to be imposed from 1972 onwards.

More recently, the creation of a "safe haven" for the Kurds in northern Iraq after the 1991 Gulf War resulted in additional problems for the Turkomans. It split them into two groups: those dominated by the Kurds and those dominated by the Baghdad regime.

The Turkomans' political importance stems mainly from their affinity with Turkey, which has difficulties with its own Kurdish minority. Turkish support for an American attack on Baghdad would probably be conditional on a protected position for the Iraqi Turkomans under a post-Saddam government.

The main Turkoman political organisations are:

Turkmen People Party (TPP)

Iraqi National Turkman Party (INTP)

Turkemenli Party

Turkmen Islamic Union

[Diri]

SchoolMaster...

Kerkûk WAS, IS and WILL be a Kurdish city like it has been since 600 BC...

[cazyun]

well that was something to think about bro diri

[schoolmaster1954]

http://kurdishaspect.blogspot.com/2006/ ... wrath.html


Kurds making a difference vis-à-vis the wrath of adversaries

May 31, 2006
Kurdishaspect.com
By Eamad Mazouri
.../...
What kind of a double standard and hypocrisy is this? I cannot understand why and how the presence of Attaturk's images everywhere in Turkey is considered a sign of respect, while that of the Kurdish leaders is a peccadillo and only a "funny" imitation of the Turks, forgetting that the phenomenon is world-wide spread, and everywhere is considered the expression of respect and admiration by the people for their leaders, unless the authors think the experience was originally invented in Turkey and then imported to the rest of the world as it is the case with the most recent silly squabble between Turkey and Greece on who was the original inventor of Baklawa.
The authors claim to have studied the history of their country. However, they fail to remember that even the Turkish nationalism was theorized by Kurds such as the [b]Ziya Gokalp who came from Amed city, who is deemed by majority of Kurds as a turn-coat, or should we let the Wikipedia Encyclopedia tell us who he was? It goes that Ziya Gökalp" was a prominent Turkish ideologue of Pan-Turkism or Turanism. His origin is Kurdish. But he said there is no difference between Kurdish and Turkish people and they are one nation". A concept that can only be described as absurd and ridiculous as the time has shown to both Turks and Kurds alike.
It is obvious that these contemptible writings do not serve the country of Turkey in her attempt to free itself from the complicated past and build a real democracy where all the ethnic and religious elements are recognized.
And they definitely do not help to seal the gap between Kurds and Turks in their search to find a better tomorrow peacefully for their new generations. [/b]

[schoolmaster1954]

SchoolMaster...

Kerkûk WAS, IS and WILL be a Kurdish city like it has been since 600 BC...

Turkoman Political Structure

Mavi Boncuk

Turkomans living in Iraq have not only been deprived of their minority rights, but have also been subjected to various oppressions. In order to wipe out Turkomans large-scale massacres have been carried out in addition to executions, banishments and displacement . One of these massacres, rarely mentioned in history books, was carried out by Armenians on May 4, 1924. After murders committed by Teyyaris, who are of Armenian origin, on August 15 1923, the government has transferred them to Kirkuk. However, these people continued with their assaults in Kirkuk which was the scene for new events.

They carried out a major massacre in this city on May 4, 1924. In the meantime, the British High Commissioner had sacked Kirkuk governor Fettah Beg and issued orders to police to arrest Hüsseyin Neftçi, Suleyman Dervish Beg and Hayrullah Hassan Efendi. Almost 200 were killed or injured during these events. Two years after the events British High Commissioner H. Dobs, who was then assigned to Iraq, put pressure on the Iraqi government to release prisoners who had been sentenced to various prison terms because of their roles in the events. Subsequently, the Council of Ministers pardons these convicts in a meeting held on June 29, 1926, but sends them to "May" village, north of Emadiya district, as residentiary exiles. In 1946 a second massacre took place in Gavurbaghe borough of Kirkuk. Workers employed by the petroleum company serenly started a strike to force their employers to determine working hours and increase their wages which were their universal rights. However, security forces, receiving orders from Englishmen who were disturbed by the strike, randomly shot unarmed people which left hundreds of Turks dead.

On July 14, 1959, the event known as the "Kirkuk Massacre" took place as Turkomans were preparing for the anniversary of the Republic and hundreds of Turkomans lost their lives during this massacre which continued for three days. The oppression suffered by Iraqi Turkomans were not limited to massacres. Some individuals were killed on electric chairs or by other torture methods while they were being interrogated. Selahattin Mustafa TERZI and Ibrahim Hamza KASAPOGLU, who were killed in their tailor shop on February 11, 192; Mehmet Fatih Saatçi, a young Turkman, who was shot down in Kirkuk on July 7, 1970; Hüseyin Ali DAMERCHI, a renowned actor who was killed on an electric chair in the Kirkuk Police Department and whose body was thrown out in a solitary neighborhood of Kirkuk and Necdet Asker Mahmut, a young soldier who was taken from his home late at night and subsequently executed are only some of the examples of these murders.

These are in addition to hundreds of innocent people killed as a result of hostile attitude of the Saddam regime against Turks including Colonel Nejat SHOKRI, a Turkoman officer who was killed on February 22, 1986; and Agronomist Nizamettin ARIF who was executed in January 1970 because of his alleged involvement in a plot; General Omer Ali who was killed as a result of a planned traffic accident; Air Lieutenant Colonel Aydin Mustafa and Air First Lieutenant Ahmet Süleyman KASAPOGLU, who were arrested at the airport while they were on duty and executed in 1987; Jelil DAMERCHI who was executed in 1981; Abdullah BESIRLI who returned back from Turkey, where he received a M.S. degree in industrial engineering, to Iraq and then executed there together with his father and uncle; Mahir OKTAY, a naturalized Turkish citizen, who was arrested in Kirkuk after traveling there to visit his family and executed on February 17, 1985 and hundreds more. After 1979 the oppression on Iraqi Turkomans reached its peak point and Ass. Prof. Nejdet KOCHAK, one of the leaders of Iraqi Turkomans; Ret. Col. Abdullah ABDURRAHMAN, Chairman of Turkman Brotherhood Centre, businessman Adil SERIF were executed on January 16, 1980 and Riza DEMIRCI, one of their comrades, was executed later. Furthermore, Mehmet KORKMAZ, one of our nationalist teachers, and his comrades including Selahattin Necim Mecit, Selahattin Abdullah MUHAMMED, Izzetin Jelil TERZI, Rushdi RASHAD FETHULLAH, Hamit Rahman SULEYMAN, Mustafa Abbas MUHAMMED and Muhsin Ali HASSAN were executed on July 9, 1980 after they have been arrested. They were followed by Halit AKKOYUNLU on July 11, 1980 and Halit Shangol and Yashar TOZLU in February 1981 who also fell victim to inhumane polices of the Saddam regime. In Iraq even a smallest police unit can make a decision to carry out a massacre or execution. Sometimes a telephone call or a telegraph suffices to execute such decisions.

The cruelty of the Saddam regime was not confined to Iraq. On April 5, 1991 fire was opened from the Iraqi consulate in Istanbul by Kalashnikov guns and Necdet Bakkaloðlu and Yilmaz Sýddýk Hacioðlu, who were among a group of protesters in front of the consulate staging a silent protest, were killed and another youngman was injured.The number of Turkomans who were exccuted between the years 1980-1997 is expressed in thousouds. Oppression and inhumane policies suffered by Turkomans were not limited to deaths, but also individual and collective banishments, forced displaced and unjustified expropriation of land were also widespread. Examples include the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council's forced migration decree no. 1391 of 20.10.1981 and decree no. 418 of 8.4.1984 relating to selling and purchasing of real property and the Kirkuk Mayor's official communique no. 4/6410 of 4.8.1991 relating to distribution of land to Arabs who were brought from south and settled in Kirkuk pursuant to the decree issued by the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Councel (For more details see the Assimilation section). the students from receiving education in Turkey and encouraged them to go to Socialist countries for education.

The Turkman Brotherhood Association, which was established in 1960, satisfied both social, cultural and political needs of the Turkman society although it was conducting its activities as a club. As a result of the aggressive attitudes of the Baas Party that began in 1977, the managers of the association were first dismissed from their offices and then arrested in 1979. This end up with their execution in 1980. The executions continued.

As a reaction to the mass executions in November 1980, the Iraqi National Democratic Turkman Organization was established in 1981. The Organisation became a member of the Iraqi National Democratic Front. The Organization set up Military Headquarters in Sinat, Northern Iraq in 1981 and in Navzang region in 1982. The Organization is the first declared political organization of Iraqi Turks. All political organizations in Iraq which came together in a meeting held in 1983 adopted for the first time the Turkman's rights and included the same in the final communique, thanks to the firm stand of the Organisation.

The Organisation suspended its activities in 1985 as a result of the change in the political conjuncture. In 1988, the Iraqi National Turkman Party (INTP) was established. However, due to oppressive, merciless and aggressive policies of the Baghdad regime, it was not until after the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in 1991 when the party declared its existence. Thanks to the invaluable endeavours of the experienced and idealist directors of the Iraqi National Turkman Party, the world has become aware of the existence of the Turkman. INTP directors participated in the meetings that were held in Riyadh, Beirut, and London and in USA. They held discussions in the capitals of those countries that are closely concerned with the Iraqi problem, like Great Britain, USA. They succeeded at being represented equally with he Kurds at important forums like European Parliament. INTP introduced in Northern Iraq a Radio-TV station, Printing Press, Press and Publications Facilities and most importantly schools where medium of instruction is Turkish.

Additionally, INTP set up a military unit of 350 persons that would form the nucleus of the armed forces. All of them were achieved with limited budgetary means. The above-mentioned developments which led to a stable region and environment that makes Turkman activities possible encouraged many others to establish new political parties and organizations in order not to leave INTP alone at the political arena.

In October 1994, studies were initiated to establish the Turkman Front in an attempt to bring together all Turkman parties and organizations under a single roof. On 24 April 1995, it was officially made public that the Turkman Front was established.


posted by M.A.M at 12:09 PM

14-16 July 1959 Kerkuk Massacre of Turkmens

Iraq, like most of the states of the Near East, is an artificial creation of the post-World War I imperialist partition of the Ottoman Empire. Under the Ottomans Iraqi Kurdistan was the vilayet (administrative division) of Mosul. Victorious Britain incorporated Mosul into a common state with the vilayets of Baghdad and Basra both to gain control of this petroleum-rich region and to give its newly created Iraqi protectorate something resembling a viable economy.

Around the oil fields of Kirkuk there developed a militant, Communist-led proletariat that was in its majority Kurdish. As Uriel Dann wrote in Iraq Under Qassem (1969): “The thousands of workers at the oil installations, the majority of whom were Kurds, had nurtured a local communist branch with a fighting record unrivalled in Iraq.” However, this Kurdish working class was recruited directly from the agrarian and nomadic mountain people who were (and still are) governed by feudal and tribal rulers and custom. Although militant, the class consciousness of this proletariat was rudimentary. As the July 1959 Kirkuk massacre demonstrated, membership in the Iraqi Communist Party, which was at best equivocal about Kurdish self-determination, did little to break Kurds from nationalism.

(The following text-albeit in broken English- describes the events)


Mavi Boncuk |

14-16 July 1959
Kerkuk Massacre of Turkmens


On 14 July 1959 City had been decorated with approximately 100 victory tank.That day A great preparation was made for Ceremany and Festival in the City.After the long preparations,all the people in the city,children,women and men in their national clothes was waiting for the start of the Ceremany.After the scorching weather was cooled,in the evening from 18:00 on People began to gather in street.People in their colorful national clothes were singing happily and playing national games.At 19:00 o’clock Parade began.Among the people in front of Parade,aport from Mayor Maruf Berzenci and Communist official Managers there were Communist establishments and hundreds of militants such as The Forwad Youth,Peace-Loving,Revolutionist Teachers and People Resistance Organization.In the meantime Militants were prepared according to a definite plan were chanting slogans against The Turks whom was accused of being norrow minded,folscist,radical Turkist.By 19:00 first sound of the weapons was heard and the Turks were attacked. Firstly 14 July Cafe’s owner Osman Hıdır was killed with the first bullet,he was tied to a motorized vehicle with ropes and began to be dragged.

The only thing that the Turks wanted to do was to celebrate the 1st Anniversary of Republic,by attacking with automatics they began dispersing.Thus,Genocide continuing 3 day and 3 night went down in History called as Kerkük Massacre,began.People were in panic so the 2nd Division Commander imposed a curfew.But,then this prohibitron was understood to be declared only for the Turks.Then One of the Turkish leaders were taken their home to Kerkük barracks with order of the 2nd Division Commandership.They were judged in five minutes and executed by shooting.Army,police and civilian organizations with the members of the Communist Party co-operated and arrested hundreds of Turks.They filled the sheds with Turks and murdered them with butt and bayanets of the rifles,Turk leaders taken their homes,were killed with automatics in front of their family.And their corpse tied to motorized vehicles were dragged street by street.Ata Hayrullah and his brother Doctor Caloner İhsan Hayrullah were killed in this way.After some of Turks were arrested,they were tied to two different vehicles with ropes,pushed and thus they split into two parts.After some of them’s corpse were dragged on the ground, tractors and lorry passed over their corpse.

Then the other Turk intellectuals whose names were fixed were killed in the same way.The criminals made brutal attacks.Some of the them were hanged up on the lamp posts and were left in hot weather.Some of them’s eyes were gouged out.Apart from deaths,thousands of Turks had been wounded.Some of the people seeing these brutality went insane.Because of fear and some pregnant women lost their childrens.Hospitals filled with injured people.There were no space in prison so many schools were converted into prison.While these brutalities were continuing Turks shops,houses and Trade centers were looted by pillagers.Not only Turks lives,but also their possessions were in danger.Many people died martyr in Kerkük Massacre.The people’s name were these; Ata Hayrullah,İhsan Hayrullah,Kasım Neftçi,Selahattin Avcı,Mehmet Avcı,Cahit Fahrettin,Osman Hıdır,Emel Muhtar Fuat,Cihat Muhtar Fuat,Cihat Muhtar Fuat,Nihat Muhtar Fuat,Nurettin Aziz,Abdullah Bayatlı,İbrahim Ramazan,Abdülhak İsmail,Hasip Ali,Cuma Kamber,Kazım Abbas Bektaş,Şakir Zeynel,Hacı Necim,Enver Abbas,Adil Abdülhamid,Zühery İzzet Çaycı,Fethullah Yunus,Kemal Abdulsamed and Seyit Gani Nakip.

In the history of Humanity the event that is unigue and bloody has been heard and made a big reaction in Iraq and created a shock reaction.This genocide’s news heard out of Iraq took place targely in Domoscus,London,Kahire,Beyrut,was given place largely in Turk press,too.The Massacre of Kerkük made a big reaction in internal and external public opinion.For that reason,General Kasım made Speech in Mor Yusuf Church in Baghdad on 20th July.He criticized the genocide action and reproached responsible people.Than He had to inform that the criminals would be punished heavily.Besides,Kasım declared that genocide was planned on purpose and was taken responsible people to court.The news about the massacre of Kerkük began to separate in Turkey On 19 July.Returning from Switzerland to Ankara that night,Minister of Foreign Affairs Fatih Rüştü Zorlu went to his office and appraised the situation.Two days later,Mr.Zorlu invited the Ankara’s Ambassador of Iraq and demanded for security.Going to Ankara so as to give information about the situation,The Baghdad’s Ambassador of Turkey Fuat Bayramoğlu,negotiated with Mr.Zorlu.After taking necessary directions,the Ambassador returned to Baghdad and reported the message of the Prime Minister Adnan Menderes and the demands of Turkish Government.

Minister of Foreign Affairs announced a decleration to the public On 25 July 1959.The facts that almost thirty Turks in Iraq died because of the events happened in Kerkük; Turkish Government connected with the Iraq Minister of Foreign Affairs by means of the Ambassador of Baghdad;meanwhile the Iraq’s Ambassador of Ankara accepted by the Turkey’s Minister of Foreign Affairs said the same things and gave the pramise of security; and the action which is against the constitution of United Nations and is condemned by them must be stopped and prevented from occuring again,as explained by the Iraq Government are all stated in this declaration.

[schoolmaster1954]

http://www.thesis.bilkent.edu.tr/0001794.pdf


THE PLACE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY IN TURKEY’S FOREIGN POLICY OPTIONS
IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA IN THE LIGHT OF LIBERAL AND
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES


A Master’s Thesis

by

RAMAZAN KILINÇ

Department of International Relations
Bilkent University
Ankara
September 2001



To Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Kibaroğlu


THE PLACE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY IN TURKEY’S FOREIGN POLICY OPTIONS
IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA IN THE LIGHT OF LIBERAL AND
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES


The Institute of Economics and Social Sciences
of
Bilkent University


by


RAMAZAN KILINÇ


In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree


of


MASTER OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS


in


THE DEPARTMENT OF
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
BİLKENT UNIVERSITY
ANKARA


September 2001



Approval of the Institute of Economics and Social Sciences

Prof. Dr. Kürşat Aydoğan
Director


I certify that I have read this thesis and in my opinion it is fully adequate in scope and
quality, as a thesis for the degree on Master of International Relations

Prof. Dr. Duygu Bazoğlu Sezer
Thesis Supervisor

I certify that I have read this thesis and in my opinion it is fully adequate in scope and
quality, as a thesis for the degree on Master of International Relations

Prof. Dr. Atila Eralp
Examining Committee Member

I certify that I have read this thesis and in my opinion it is fully adequate in scope and
quality, as a thesis for the degree on Master of International Relations

Asst. Prof. Dr. Serdar Güner
Examining Committee Member


ABSTRACT


THE PLACE OF SOCIAL IDENTITY IN TURKEY’S FOREIGN POLICY OPTIONS
IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA IN THE LIGHT OF LIBERAL AND
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES


Kılınç, Ramazan
Master, Department of International Relations
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Duygu Bazoğlu Sezer


September 2001


This thesis aims to describe the positions of diverse social identities in Turkey
concerning Turkey’s foreign policy options in the post-Cold War era. This exercise will
be placed within the framework of the theoretical propositions of liberal and
constructivist International Relations (IR) theories with special references to their
emphases on the role of identity on foreign policy making in a comparative manner. For
liberal theoreticians, key concept is “state preferences” in the formation of foreign
policy. They argue that state preferences are formed in the process of the competition of
views among social identities in the society as well as by the constraints resulting from
the preferences of other states. In the constructivist theory, a key concept is “national
interests” which are constructed and negotiated socially by the discourses among
different national identities. In this context, it will be examined the impact of diverse
social identities, namely, Kemalist, liberal, nationalist, Kurdish and Islamic identities on
the Turkey’s foreign policies towards Europe and Eurasia.

Keywords: Identity, Turkish Foreign Policy, Liberal International Relations Theory,
Constuctivist International Relations Theory

iii


ÖZET

LİBERAL VE KONSTRÜKTİVİST YAKLAŞIMLARIN IŞIĞINDA SOĞUK SAVAŞ
SONRASI TÜRKİYE’NİN DIŞ POLİTİKA SEÇENEKLERİNDE SOSYAL KİMLİĞİN YERİ

Kılınç, Ramazan
Master, Uluslararası İlişkiler Bölümü
Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Duygu Bazoğlu Sezer


Eylül 2001


Bu tez, soğuk savaş sonrası dönemde Türkiye’de çeşitli sosyal kimliklerin Türkiye’nin
dış politika seçeneklerinin oluşumundaki yerlerini açıklamayı amaçlamaktadır. Bu uğraş
içerisinde liberal ve konstrüktivist uluslararası ilişkiler teorilerinin, özellikle kimliğin dış
politika yapımındaki rolünü vurgulayan teorik çerçevelerinden karşılaştırmalı olarak
yararlanılacaktır. Liberal teorisyenlere göre dış politika yapımındaki anahtar kavram
“devlet tercihleri”dir. Onlar, devlet tercihlerinin toplumdaki farklı sosyal kimliklerin
görüşlerinin rekabeti sürecinde ve diğer devletlerin tercihlerinden kaynaklanan
sınırlamalarla oluşturulduğunu iddia ederler. Konstrüktivist teoride anahtar kavram
farklı kimlikler arasındaki söylemlerin bir neticesi olarak inşa edilen “ulusal çıkarlar”
dır. Bu çerçevede, başlıca, Kemalist, liberal, milliyetçi, Kürt ve İslamcı olmak üzere
çeşitli sosyal kimliklerin, Türkiye’nin Avrupa ve Avrasya’ya yönelik dış politikalarının
oluşumuna olan etkileri üzerinde durulacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Kimlik, Türk Dış Politikası, Liberal Uluslararası İlişkiler Teorisi,
Konstrüktivist Uluslararası İlişkiler Teorisi.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ............................................................................…………………… iii
ÖZET .........................................................................................…………………. iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................……………………. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..............................................................……………….. vi
INTRODUCTION …..............................................................................…………. 1
CHAPTER 1: IDENTITY AND FOREIGN POLICY:
LIBERAL AND CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES ............………………… 4


1. IDENTITY AND FOREIGN POLICY ..............................……………… 4


1. 1. Defining Identity: Drawing Borders
Between “Self” and “Other” ..............................…………………. 4

1. 2. Identity and the Formation of Foreign Policy ..................……….. 9


1. 2. 1. Identity and Elements of Continuity in
Foreign Policy ................................................................... 10

1. 2. 2. Identity and the Elements of Change in
Foreign Policy .....................................................……….. 11

2. LIBERAL THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS ………………. 15

2. 1. The Primacy of Societal Actors ..............................……………… 17


2. 2. Representation and State Preferences ..............................………... 19


2. 3. Interdependence and the International System ............................... 20


3. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS .................................................................. 21

3. 1. State, Identity, and Interests ........................................................... 22


3. 2. The International System ............................................................... 24


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4. IMPLICATIONS FOR FOREIGN POLICY ANALYSIS:
ANALYZING TURKISH FOREIGN POLICY IN
THE POST-COLD WAR ERA .................................................................... 26

4. 1. Liberal IR Theory and
Turkish Foreign Policy in the Post Cold War ........................…… 30

4. 2. Constructivist IR Theory and
Turkish Foreign Policy in the Post Cold War ........................…… 32
CHAPTER 2: TURKEY’S EUROPEAN OPTION
IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA ……............................................……………. 35

1. INSTITUTIONAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXTS ………………….. 36

2. EUROPE AS A TURKISH FOREIGN POLICY OPTION
IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA ............................................................. 42

2. 1. The Review of Turkish Foreign Policy towards
Europe in the Post-Cold War Era .................................................. 42

2. 2. Foreign Policy Discourses and Debates among
Diverse Social Identities in the Formation of State
Preferences and the Construction of National Interests ................. 45

2. 2. 1. Liberal Groups .................................................................. 46


2. 2. 2. Extreme Nationalist Groups .....................................……..49


2. 2. 3. Kurdish Nationalists ...........................................…………51


2. 2. 4. Islamic Groups ....................................................………. 55
CHAPTER 3:TURKEY’S EURASIAN OPTION IN
THE POST-COLD WAR ERA .....................................................................…….. 60

1. The Review of Turkish Foreign Policy towards
Eurasia in the Post-Cold War Era ...................................................…….… 60

2. Foreign Policy Discourses and Debates among
Diverse Social Identities in the Formation of
State Preferences and the Construction of National Interests ..................... 66

2. 1. Liberal Groups ............................................................................... 66


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2. 2. Extreme Nationalist Groups ...................................………….… 68
2. 3. Islamic Groups ....................................................………………... 69
CONCLUSION .......................................................................................……….… 71
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY ........……........................................................……… 75

[Emanoelkurdistani]

You see Osmans as Turks. Who is viewing the past with nationalist eyes here? Excuse me..

I see turks as osmans. We are their sons.

I dont see osmans as kazak or kırgız, but Turks.

Aren't the Kazak and Kirgiz also "Turks"?

The more I use that term - Turk - the more I dislike it. It has no boundries, no official meaning. It's such a loose term that it can be manipulated in so many ways.

Kazak are Turks, Ubeks are Turks, Turks of Turkey are Turks, Azeris are Turks, Kirgiz are Turks, Tatars are Turks, Turkmen are Turks...and yet they hardly have anything in common. Even their languages are different! An Azeri cant understand a Kazak! So what EXACTLY defines a Turk??

.

[K4L_2007]

are trying to show your intelligence? Of course before coming of turks, there were other people.

Before comings of kurds and armenians, there were other people too.

And before homo sapiens, there were monkeys at anatolia.

So Kurds have less right than monkeys at anatolia.(Sorry you asked for it.)

Your a muslim, your not supposed to believe in evolution

Anyway if there were any other ppl or monkeys, they died out, we didnt, we have stayed here longer than anybody else which means the place is ours.

Do you agree or do you disagree with my statement?

[Balci]

Turks is Mongols, pronto.

[K4L_2007]

Turks is Mongols, pronto.

Many turkish ppl deny their "mongonality" lol

They say that there has not been any mongol/turkmen mix and that they are a "pure" people (if thats how to explain it).

Still i know a turk named Cengiz. Is it just me or does that come from Ghengis Khan?

hmm Does anyone know who it was who ended the great khans empire??

[Balci]

we, with China and Japan defeated the Mongolian Empire before conquering the world, meaby Russia did something too.

We stopped Mongolia from conquering Europe, Japan defeated 2 weaves of huge Mongol armies in Japan, and China did the rest, chased them up the mountains in the borders of Russia.

[zurderer]

Anyway if there were any other ppl or monkeys, they died out, we didnt, we have stayed here longer than anybody else which means the place is ours.

And maybe It is your time to die.


Also no need to be stupid, nor china neither japan stoped mongols to rule Europe. You should read history before talk about it.

Many turkish ppl deny their "mongonality" lol

You should read history more and more. Not any historian claim this, only some nationalist(generally anti-turkish ones.) claims this.

If you ask me, this is stupidy nothing more.

Also, there is not any problem becoming mongol, they ruled largest empire, they accomplished much more than other nations.(Specially, japans and kurds.)

But fact is fact.

[Balci]

ehm, so who defeated Genghis ? did they become emo and kill themselves or something ?

and what haven' Kurdistan and Japan accomplished ? we got our land in Iraq back, and Japan is far by some of the worlds most powerful nations in economics and military forces, I do rather want you to read some history, the Mongols did nothing but kill and conquer.

[zurderer]

ehm, so who defeated Genghis ? did they become emo and kill themselves or something ?

no, japans. They helped russians turks persian and arabs from far east asia.

Maybe you should read more about mongol history. You are half right. Noone defeated genghis. Their empire divided for.

If you want to talk about defeat. Sorry body, Kolemens were not kurds. They were living at egypt, and largely an arab-turkish army.

Kurdistan did nothing, dont find new historical tales from your stomach.

It is funny, kurds think they overcome mongols.

read history from an objective books. Not your 1001 night kurdish history tales.